This cultural rhetorics project would not be complete without a portion dedicated to the previous literature on the nature of phronesis and the works of scholars who have made headway in the world of Irish cultural rhetorics.
Phronesis, or practical wisdom is transmitted and embodied in Irish culture and rhetoric through storytelling, folklore, music, and poetry. In this project, we will look at phronesis, or practical wisdom, as way of orienting and situating oneself in relation to the world, the self, relationships, culture, history, and state. In various contexts, Irish cultural rhetorics is often referred to as customs and sits closely aligned with anthropology. However, the study of oral literature and the nature of practical wisdom that is derived from such customs, is categorically related to rhetoric and composition. For this project, phronesis is explored through the application of knowledge granted from experience, which is gifted from one person to another, and phronesis is the embodiment of practical wisdom toward inspiring the embodiment of ‘right action.’
Part of the passage of this knowledge is through visualizations of reality through folklore which seeks to make sense of the world. As a group of people in a given culture develop and orient themselves to the world, their culture views and reality of the world.
Aristotle and Contemporary Phronesis
To further clarify the aims and connections of rhetoric to phronesis and folklore, it is important to revisit the root of phronesis in connection to aspiring virtue and right action through Aristotle. Aristotle’s desired projection of a perfect practitioner of rhetoric is underlined in his works, Nicomacean Ethics in which he paints a vivid picture of Phronimos meaning a “man of practical wisdom.” The inferences and claim in Aristotle’s work addressing phronesis, or locating the presence of Phronesis as a rhetorical concept and device was put forth by Lois Self (1979). According to Self, Aristotle unwittingly conceptualized phronesis as one the of the persuasive aspects of rhetoric that is aligned towards the goal of inspiring virtue. Beforehand, the concept of virtue, or rightly ordered action, was not inherently aligned with rhetoric as Phronesis concerned itself with ethics and morality.
Irish people are good at negotiating difficult situations, seeing opportunities for change and taking risks while not being to tied to baggage from the past (being ambiguous again!!) and taking positive action. This can be seen say in the Good Friday Agreement, in changing attitudes to social issues. In the past it allowed us to accommodate Christian and pagan beliefs at the same time. - Sean Nolan
Self claimed that rhetoric was an art to facilitate the adoption of truth and rightly ordered action through truthful persuasion. She also outlined the fact that phronesis could also be translated into the conception of ‘thought’ or ‘thoughtfulness’ (137) in which the thoughts towards virtue to inspire action are largely concerned with an individual carefully thinking about or considering details in order to reach a ‘good’ outcome. Self also elaborated on the function of phronesis in rhetoric as a method of counsel, or meaning “to counsel.” "Practical wisdom concerns itself with one's self, one's family, and the state because the individual’s welfare is bound up with that of others. "(142)
By considering Self’s position (142) on phronesis, it is inextricably linked to the notions of folklore presented by both Read and Dundes. Folklore, of all things, concerns itself with the nature of culture. It is transmitted as culture through oral literature and overall maintains the connections and importance of individual, national, and cultural identity, and practices. Similarly, the act of passing down practical wisdom through oral literature and storytelling is inseparable from folklore and therefore interconnected with phronesis.
Practical wisdom covers all areas if Irish life from child rearing, looking after the land, herbalism and cures, care of animals, and weatherlore. - Deser Nolan
Aristotle advocated for right judgement through deliberation and the practical execution of knowledge towards action. Phronesis within folklore and cultural rhetorics also functions towards the practical execution of knowledge and the handing down of that knowledge through storytelling. The handing down of such knowledge is aimed at preservation; the preservation of self, culture, country, religion, and various relationships.
This is above all the work of the man of practical wisdom, to deliberate well, but no one deliberates about things invariable, nor things which have not an end, and that a good that can be brought about by action. The man who is without qualification good at deliberating is the man who is capable of aiming in accordance with calculation at the best for man of things attainable by action {NE 1141"9-14)
In discussing the functional nature of phronesis, Smith covers Heidegger’s general insights into Aristotle’s conception of phronesis in rhetoric. According to Smith,
Heidegger sees phronesis as a mode of comportment in and toward the world, a way of orienting oneself and thus of caring-seeing-knowing. It is an ethical comportment and way of inhabiting the world insofar as the ancient Greek term ethos refers not only to moral character acquired through habit and choice but also to a way of inhabiting a place. Phronesis is an ethical comportment because it is a social "positioning" of oneself that enables a particular way of being concerned - phronesis is a conscientious orientation and dis-position to/in the world. (88)
Both Smith and Heidegger recognize phronesis as a method of orienting oneself in the world, as well as maintaining one’s place in the world. In connection to the greater study of Irish cultural rhetoric, the use of phronesis is used to orient the Irish culture and Celtic roots of the Irish people in an ever-changing world in contrast to the rapid globalization and westernization that Ireland and the world has seen since the Roman Empire.
Folklore and Rhetoric: Connections Across Disciplines
To begin this section of the literature review, I would like to address Ben-Amos’ description of the pitfalls of folklore studies.
The examination of the history of folklore might provide simply a new outlet for the obsession with collecting, for which our profession is reputed and ridiculed. It could divert the energy of enterprising folklorists from collecting tales, songs, proverbs, and log cabins to the gathering of historical facts. Tediously and laboriously, we would unveil whatever our predecessors tried to conceal, peep into their drawers of correspondence, and collect and classify the facts about past collecting and classifying... The accumulations of texts and the construction of indexes have proven us able chroniclers, not historians, of oral tradition. (114-115)
In trying to bridge the gap between folklore, history, and avoiding the pitfalls of being a discipline rooted in collection, rhetoric and composition studies offer a new pathway to understanding oral literature and exploring the value, context, and rhetorical purposes of folklore and storytelling. Perhaps the addition of Rhetoric as a discipline to the conversation surrounding folklore studies could shed some light on the embodiment of folklore in the oral tradition.
Folklore would be in the local villages. The local people, they're the ones that would spread the word from place to place, village to village. - Patrick Nolan
In the previous sections of this literature review, I had addressed the nature of folklore, Irish folklore, and phronesis. One of the final cementing links behind folklore and rhetoric is related to their overlap in area of study and connection to culture. Bascom, as cited in Bronner (1988) states that "folklore is that art form, comprising various types of stories, proverbs, sayings, spells, songs, incantations, and other formulas, which employs spoken language as its medium.” (78) Not only does this definition align with contemporary understandings of cultural rhetoric, is also aligns with the nature of Irish folklore and rhetoric and concurrent studies of oral literature through a perspective of art. This connection inexorably highlights the connection between folklore and rhetoric through storytelling and the passage of cultural practical wisdom. Furthermore, Bronner explores the reality of the application of folklore. “Further, although "folk" is used to indicate the traditional and esoteric, the researcher often assumed folk to be an index of age and stylistic similarity instead of referring to a learning process.” (81) Bronner paints folklore and oral literature as a cultural heuristic that results in wisdom from a cultural practice.
Word of mouth and listening to other people or other kids. I didn't have much (stories) of my own. Sometimes on the farm when we go out into the farm. We had what we'd call the Farmyard lodge, where the workers lived. They'd sit around their fireplace. Telling stories and playing music and stuff like that. - Patrick Nolan
Stern elaborates on the connection between ethnic folklore and phronesis in folkloric studies. “They have noted that ethnic folklore is a significant indicator of a group’s traditional values.” (7) Thereby, the lesson imparted through storytelling and folklore are meant to be shared to help preserve the cultural value and practical wisdom and encourage members of a community to act in accordance with the values represented in culturally specific examples of folklore. “’ Folklore is a function of shared identity’" is widely held by folklorists who emphasize the social base of folklore and who consider folklore to be the traditional embodiment of a particular group's collective ideas and values.” (9) It is here that phronesis in traditional rhetorical studies and storytelling has made a home in folklore studies. The connection between folklore and lived values is phronesis.
In modern times, the relevancy of folklore and oral literature has come into question. In exploring the modern adaptations of folklore among various cultures in modern times that are fighting to retain culturally relevant values Stern cites the concept of new folklore.
Folklorists conceive of "new" folklore as consisting primarily of (1) the expansion of traditional genres to include new content, (2) the contraction of traditional genres and behavioral patterns which results in a quantitatively different output, and (3) the combination of "modern" cultural forms with "traditional" genres so as to create a qualitatively different configuration. Narratives embodying the personal experiences of ethnics have emerged as the most pronounced form of "new" ethnic folklore. (26)
This form of folklore can be conceptualized through the common use of storytelling that still retains conceptions of traditional genres and values merged with the practical wisdom of the modern age. The adaptations of culture and folklore are simply another example of phronesis in action.
Cultural Relevance and the ‘Folk’
While calling for the contemporary critical study of folklore or “new” folklore, Gencarella inadvertently defends the presence of phronesis in folklore in rhetorical studies. Referred to as common sense towards cultural and collective action the research in question analyzes folklore as a pathway to political categories and societal expectations. These expectations translate into reinforcing behavior or action that exists within folklore in order to maintain the independence or cultural and communal common wisdom:
rhetorical act of folklore (verbal or visual) serves as an invocation of a given folk as a political category, corresponding with and reinforcing other social practices defining that group. Attention to constitutive rhetoric advances cases in which "the folk" serves as a political fiction that advocates persuade individuals to accept for the purpose of collective action; in this way, such attention will involve a renewed and recalibrated analysis of folklore and the calling forth of a "folk" within contexts of power. This kind of work will extend theories of constitutive rhetorics of the nation-state to those of "the folk," but such a rhetorical practice may further be localized. (177)
It (practical wisdom) teaches that good times and bad times come and go in our lives and that we must learn to take all in our stride. GK Chesterton said of the Irish “all their wars are merry and all their songs are sad”. Practical wisdom is transmitted through word of mouth, storytelling, drama, music, poetry and transmitted by example. - Deser Nolan
The localization of folklore and rhetoric helps define and establish the common sense or practical wisdom of a given group or “folk.” Gencarella also states that the usage of folklore is particularly useful for young children as it helps reinforce cultural norms and standards towards rhetorical frameworks, calling to Read and Dundes.
In this manner, common sense creates the conditions for all other constitutive rhetorical practices and interpretative frameworks. Put dramatically, children are not born scientists or philosophers or administrators, and certainly not enemies, but they are born rhetoricians and first engage the rhetorical in learning a common sense. Common sense is the initial ground for identity construction, and as a constellation of received ideas and ways of living in tandem with individual practical experience of self, it ties to the fictions of "tradition.” (170)
The realities of tradition which are passed down via storytelling, folklore, and oral literature, are imperative to the essence of cultural practical wisdom and see to the survival of culture-specific rhetorical practices and frameworks. In addition to cultural examples such as music and poetry, another example of folkloric performance is the proverb. Proverbs are cultural sayings that equate to the practical embodiment and execution of phronesis. Proverbs, while culturally or religiously specific in nature, are often used in folkloric performances or examples of oral literature as a means of embodying the cultural realities of the speaker and the audience.
The proverb (or any specific folkloric performance) likewise hearkens to the formation of common sense while fulfilling or transcending it. This is rhetoric not merely as adornment but as constitutive power, a remembrance of the need to articulate demands as well as an articulation of them, a reminder of the need to name the unnamable as well as a strategy for doing so. Folklore is a rhetoric whose power lies in recalling the reasons we develop common sense, namely to learn how to identify with constitutions of "our" folk and, with it, constructions of those who are not "we folk." (181)
The usage of culturally relevant folkloric stories and proverbs helps further create a cultural identity and realm of commonality between the speaker and audience and those who transmit oral literature.
While investigating the beginnings of rhetoric and rhetorical study in Ireland, it is imperative to note the importance of Ancient Irish rhetoric on the modern-day practices of storytelling, folklore, and phronesis in relation to bardic traditions. In ancient to medieval times stories were not necessarily handed down from one family member to another but they were performed or practiced by a skilled class of verbal orators known as the fili. According to Johnson-Sheehan and Lynch, the fili essentially functioned as bards in Irish history except they were viewed as their own class of people in the social system. These highly trained bards were particularly adept at recounting the histories, mythology, and beliefs of Irish culture to their audience as well as the Celtic Kings in whose court they served or performed. “Irish relied on a narrative-based rhetoric to persuade others, conduct their civil affairs, educate their youth, and preserve their cultural values.” (234) The fili were organized into guilds and maintained their own level of hierarchy based on the skill of oral performance. These skilled orators passed down the wisdom and values of history and traditions in the Irish culture and functioned in part, as the physical embodiment of phronesis.
Bards served a similar role in Irish society as poets and sophists served in ancient Greece. Like ancient Greek poets, they used poetry and stories to educate and spiritually nourish their communities. Like the sophists they were teachers, jurists, and entertainers who imparted wisdom on a variety of subjects and taught their students how to operate in civil society. (243)
The fili’s entire pursuit in life was to master the wisdom, traditions, and values of the Irish people and to pass it down to royalty or even those who frequented taverns. The cultural significance of oral literature and verbal traditions are inextricably linked to phronesis and was an essential part of inspiring action that remained in continuity with Irish history, values, and beliefs. “Like all mythological narratives, Irish myths and legends reveal their truths not in facts but in the themes at their cores. The retelling of particular narratives in an oral culture reinforces particular patterns of cultural behavior that shape how a people behave.” (Johnson-Sheehan & Lynch, 238)
As ancient and medieval Ireland slowly gave way from paganism to Christianity, Ireland retained most of its cultural values and beliefs in which storytellers and those transmitting oral literature began to master not only the history and traditions of Ireland but also of Christianity (Stone). In many ways, bards and storytellers adopted and refined Christian views through a syncretic approach most often associated with Roman Catholicism. This adoption of Christianity impacted the way in which rhetoric and language were now translated and recorded. Regardless of the impacts of Christianity, Ireland still maintained its history, culture, and rhetorical patterns such as poetry. Another aspect of Irish rhetoric that survived the influx of Christianity in Ireland is the usage of visual imagery in rhetoric. Manuscript illuminations and visual exhibits of Irish rhetoric such as the Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow. “These manuscripts are visually stunning and a fantastic example of the visual rhetoric of manuscript illumination. There are also a number of surviving ogam stones and inscribed crosses that demonstrate the importance of material rhetoric in the medieval Irish landscape.” (Stone, 1)
All the previous mentions of phronesis and folklore would not be complete without acknowledging a wider call for the study of Irish rhetoric as put forth by Woods. Woods addresses the previous lenses of Irish rhetoric set forth by Joyce and Barry, and their lack of understanding the unique complexity of Irish rhetoric that is distinctly different from Classical rhetoric. “Unlike Classical rhetoric’s revolving arrangement of rhetorical elements, Irish rhetoric relies on the constancy of rhetorical values as they are acted upon by factors introduced over the course of time.” (51) Many of these factors, such as narration, spectrality, and callbacks to the past rely on the role of Phronesis and cultural relevancy and cultural wisdom to preserve the rhetorical arts of Ireland. “Spectrality is an important rhetorical strategy because it acknowledges how Irish rhetoric is constantly building on itself while maintaining previous ideas and values.” (58) The idea of spectrality addresses how Irish rhetoric is able to take in adaptations of culture and rhetoric while still maintaining traditional Irish values and tenets. The adoption of Christianity by the Celts and the syncretic approach to Catholicism and paganism is one such example and appeal of Irish rhetoric.
Fairies, Banshees, and Phronesis
Having established the connections of folklore studies, rhetoric, and composition, I shall now explore the connections of scholarly work on Irish folklore. One of the earlier scholarly works on Irish folklore focuses primarily on the nature of customary tales of fairies, bog witches, and banshees. Published in 1916, “Some Characteristics of Irish Folklore” by D.H. Moutray Read explores some of the most famous aspects of Irish folklore and storytelling. Will-o'-the-wisps and bewitching by trickster fairies categorize some of the earlier lore surrounding storytelling among everyday people in Ireland. In interviewing locals, Read discovered a penchant for urban lore and storytelling among residents of Limerick.
Cross-questioning elicited nothing more definite, but the time tallies with the even vaguer mention of a recent witch-burning made by a man in the Royal Irish Constabulary, and rumours of witchburning are to hand within the last ten years in Clare, Kerry, Sligo, and Roscommon. (250)
Origin myths bring communities together. The different domains typically have different types of folklore. - Sean Nolan
However, Read cites the cases as being more reason to focus on the function, nature and context of these stories and the customs behind them.
Here it suffices to say that, as in all things Irish, the reasons are both complex and contradictory: something of good nature, a measure of disdain, much pride, a touch of despair, genuine curiosity, and a leavening of wit. (258)
Perhaps the nature of Irish folklore lies in both storytelling and superstition. However, Read, notes that folklore extends far beyond blatant superstition, but rather is has impacted many different parts of Irish society, agriculture, religion, harvesting, herbalism, history, and even official departments of government.
Read, in exploring the “customs” of Irish Folklore, had no idea that his studies a hundred years later would equate to the exploration of Irish Oral Literature and rhetoric. Read notes that salience of a lack of written custom for storytelling and cultural customs. In short, Read explores this as being “typically Irish” in nature, especially when such customs are compared to their English counterparts. Read suggests that because the nature of folklore and storytelling is so well known amongst natives, and functions in part as a collective memory through folklore, there is no need to write things down for the account of those who are outsiders or not Irish. This is in direct response to the colonial nature of traditional Western European society to which Ireland has so successfully resisted (Woods).
Furthermore, Read eloquently accounts for the lack of study on Irish oral literature, and the lack of understanding surrounding Irish rhetoric and folklore.
Ireland has been doomed to a lack of continuity in everything but trouble. On social conditions I have hardly touched-in part they explain the difficulty in obtaining records of Irish folklore. Oral traditions are swamped in time, especially in a land where class division was marked by so unbridged a gulf. (276)
Part of this project aims at bridging that gulf and exploring how customs translate to cultural rhetorics and practical wisdom. But unbeknownst to Read, he began the study of Phronesis in Irish cultural rhetorics and “new” folklore long before rhetoric was even a formal area of study in academia. For Read’s part, I shall leave you with this.
Customs, in Ireland as elsewhere, lingered while the grandparents handed on the tales and traditions they had learnt from their own aged progenitors. But Rebellion and Famine made ghastly breaks in Irish home life; subsequent immigration bit deep, and, so far as folklore is concerned, brought in the potent action of ridicule. The emigrant found his cherished notions ignored in more progressive lands, "And scorn and laughter together are the sire and dam of change." He, or she, laughed at there, returned to Ireland-what exile from Erin is without that dream of eventual homecoming?-to ridicule what was once a treasured tradition. It is not to them we must look for records. Yet the Irish have long memories, unlike the English who are good forgetters. (277)
Folklore is such a subject that breeches gulfs and spans across space and time. Alan Dundes (1969) began to breach the gaps in research between folklore, rhetoric, and cultural reflections with his article “Folklore as a Mirror of Culture.” Simply put, Dundes outlines the nature of cultural rhetorics quite simply and describes folklore as being an “autobiographical ethnography-that is, it is a people's own description of themselves.” (471) Such a definition of folklore closely aligns with the very definitions of rhetoric and phronesis that I provided at the beginning of this article with rhetoric functioning “as way of orienting and situating oneself in relation to the world, the self, relationships, culture, history, and state.”
In this article, Dundes aligns the term ethnocentrism with Phronesis in his explanation of ethnocentrism in anthropology. “This is the notion, apparently held in some form by all the peoples of the earth, that the way we do things is ‘natural’ and ‘right’ whereas the way others do them is ‘strange,’ perhaps ‘unnatural’ and maybe even ‘wrong.’” (471) Dundes goes on to explain that ethnocentrism as studied in folklore seeks to understand the teachings or stories that are handed down from one generation to the next.
Organisational folklore is passed to newcomers by the “old hands” and generally concerns tips and tricks on how to effectively carry out the functions of the organisation more effectively. - Sean Nolan
“If one is interested in learning about folklore, one must elicit oral tradition.” (475) The oral traditions of any culture hold the value and practical wisdom of all those who came before the speaker. Oral traditions require engagement and connection and help reaffirm culture and identity. “The history of folklore studies reveals that folklorists in many different countries have often been inspired by the desire to preserve their national heritage.”
Bridging off of the topic of cultural preservation Dundes also posits that folklore reflects common themes that are found across humanity, but rather function in different ways to varying degrees, with all cultures making stories their own. (472) Dundes then argues for a heightened study or appreciation for folklore and practical wisdom that is handed down from generation to generation.
We need to use every available means to better understand ourselves and our fellow men. Folklore is one such means, one available for the asking. We are all folk. All one needs to begin such work is people, people to ask and people to listen. Whether an individual asks about his own folklore or asks others about their folklore, if he listens, he will learn. (482)
The role of fairies in folklore is one that is verifiably important to the culture and common wisdom of the Irish people and “their own folklore.” In discussing the role of fairies in folklore Correll, echoing Read, distinctly covers the practical usage of folklore and local narratives in everyday life and details the ways in which folklore’s uses in Ireland have evolved with the spirituality and culture of the country. Cultural rhetoric and practical wisdom are indeed impacted by various aspects such as religion and spirituality.
On the eve of St. Brigid’s Day (February 1st), a cloth was left outside (the Brath Bríde). This cloth would then be used to cure coughs and sore throats during the year. - Sean Nolan
In the article, Correll details the beliefs of piseóg and the various functions of superstition in culture as practical wisdom which was born out of folklore. The connection between practical wisdom and superstition is an area of study that has yet to be fully developed in rhetorical studies of folklore but functions nevertheless as one that sheds light on the constellation that is Irish rhetoric. As Correll notes, most of the stories of fairies are met with a modicum of suspicion in their validity, but most of the stories accounting for the existence of fairies fall under local folklore and storytelling.
Such dialogic utterances-discourses in which evidence is presented in conjunction with rationalist explanations or counter-evidence-show that individuals are sites of confluence for a multiplicity of divergent voices and attitudes toward supernatural beliefs: a concatenation of the discrepancy and contradiction that was encountered, assimilated, and passed on to others as part of the controversy over the fairies and the power of wise folk associated with them. (14)
The knowledge and explanation of fairies and subsequent activity is culturally aligned with the role of wisdom as a lens of viewing the world in Irish culture. Moreover, the overlapping functions between folklore, storytelling, and what one would now refer to as popular culture is not unfounded. Modern stories and “new” folklore practices coined by Ó Crualaoich and Ó Giolláin further explore the modern examples and studies of piseóg, while underscoring the embodiment and manifestations of cultural wisdom in Ireland.
Conclusion
To conclude, this is only a brief overview of the literature that spans across various disciplines. The examples interwoven throughout this literature are meant to provide context and connection to the readings covered. The presence of phronesis in folklore is linked through the study of rhetoric and rhetoric as a discipline provides a necessary connection between research. Primary conceptions of phronesis lay the groundwork for modern scholars to make connections between the embodiment of phronesis and the connections between cultural and practical wisdom that is handed down through folklore by means of storytelling and oral literature.
Works Cited
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Bronner, Simon J. “Art, Performance, and Praxis: The Rhetoric of Contemporary Folklore Studies.” Western Folklore, vol. 47, no. 2, 1988, pp. 75–101. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1500125. Accessed 7 Apr. 2024.
Correll, Timothy Corrigan. “Believers, Sceptics, and Charlatans: Evidential Rhetoric, the Fairies, and Fairy Healers in Irish Oral Narrative and Belief.” Folklore, vol. 116, no. 1, 2005, pp. 1–18. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30035235. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Crualaoich, Gearóid Ó., and Diarmuid Ó. Giolláin. “Folklore in Irish Studies.” The Irish Review (1986-), no. 5, 1988, pp. 68–74. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/29735382. Accessed 7 Apr. 2024
D. H. Moutray Read. “Some Characteristics of Irish Folklore.” Folklore, vol. 27, no. 3, 1916, pp. 250–78. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1255137. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Dundes, Alan. “Folklore as a Mirror of Culture.” Elementary English, vol. 46, no. 4, 1969, pp. 471– 82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41386525. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Gencarella, Stephen Olbrys. “Constituting Folklore: A Case for Critical Folklore Studies.” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 122, no. 484, 2009, pp. 172–96. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20487676. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Johnson-Sheehan, Richard, and Paul Lynch. “Rhetoric of Myth, Magic, and Conversion: A Prolegomena to Ancient Irish Rhetoric.” Rhetoric Review, vol. 26, no. 3, 2007, pp. 233– 52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20176789. Accessed 24 Mar. 2024.
Self, Lois S. “Rhetoric and Phronesis: The Aristotelian Ideal.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 12, no. 2, 1979, pp. 130–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40237105. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Smith, Daniel L. “Intensifying Phronesis: Heidegger, Aristotle, and Rhetorical Culture.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 36, no. 1, 2003, pp. 77–102. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40238138. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Stern, Stephen. “Ethnic Folklore and the Folklore of Ethnicity.” Western Folklore, vol. 36, no. 1, 1977, pp. 7–32. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1498212. Accessed 7 Apr. 2024.
Stone, Brian, Medieval Irish Rhetorical Traditions. American Society for the History of Rhetoric. N.d. ashr.org/teaching-resources/teaching-history-of-rhetoric/medieval-irish-rhetorical-traditions.
Woods, Rachel E., "A Call for the Study of Irish Rhetoric." Thesis, Georgia State University, 2021. doi: https://doi.org/10.57709/24359332
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